The Old Town of Corfu, on the Island of Corfu off the western coasts of Albania and Greece, is located in a strategic position at the entrance of the Adriatic Sea, and has its roots in the 8th century BC. The three forts of the town, designed by renowned Venetian engineers, were used for four centuries to defend the maritime trading interests of the Republic of Venice against the Ottoman Empire. In the course of time, the forts were repaired and partly rebuilt several times, more recently under the British rule in the 19th century. The mainly neo-classical housing stock of the Old Town is partly from the Venetian period, partly of later construction, notably the 19th century. As a fortified Mediterranean port, Corfu's urban and port ensemble is notable for its high level of integrity and authenticity.

Description

The island of Corfu (in Greek: Kerkyra) lies in the Adriatic Sea off the western coast of Greece and Albania. The Old Town of Corfu lies between two fortresses midway along the island’s eastern coastline. The Old Citadel and the New Fort form two remarkable monuments in the urban fabric. To the east, the canal dug by the Venetians has transformed the rocky promontory on which the Old Citadel was founded into an island looking down over the tiny harbour of Mandraki. The citadel retains the imposing Venetian fortifications, restructured by the British, laid out on three levels on the far side of the canal linked by a footbridge to the Spianada. A first outer wall leads to the frontal fortification, consisting of two orillon bastions (Martinengo and Savorgnan) and a curtain through which the main gate enters (around 1550). A stone bridge crosses a broad ditch along which runs a 19 th century barracks. A second wall protects the base of the two fortified peaks, and access to it is via a series of ramps and stairs. A vaulted passage leads to the harbour of Mandraki which itself also retains a monumental gate, now closed. Some buildings on various levels, mainly dating from the 19 th century, have been preserved. These include the former Venetian prisons, raised in height by the British, four powder magazines, the hospital, which stretches from one peak to the other, two barracks, and the Church of St. George in the form of a Doric temple (1840).

The imposing structure of the New Fort dominates the north-western sector of the Old Town. A pentagonal salient, a half-salient, and the small fort of Punta Perpetua are connected by a rampart and command the old harbour.

Long sloping tunnels lead to the British barracks and the two bastions of the Seven Winds linked by a curtain wall and looking out over the countryside. These look down on 164.a broad ditch and two bastions preserved from the second Venetian perimeter wall. The two gates of the New Fort still exist, as does the church of Panagia Spiliotissa (rebuilt in 1739). The ring road around the Old Town follows the line of the ancient town wall, some traces of which remain to the west and south and one gate, the Spilia Gate, of the original four (Royal Gate, St Nicholas Gate, Raimonda Gate).

The outlines of the Old Town were determined by lack of space and the needs of defence. The urban fabric forms a compact core consisting of ten quarters, differentiated by their form. The quarters which range over the three low hills (Campielo, Agion Pateron, and Agiou Athanassiou) are irregular and fragmentary in their make-up, a sure sign of the original suburbs preserved from the demolition necessary for the construction of the perimeter wall. They are characterised by a network of radial streets, small squares, and compact blocks of housing clustered around the churches. The outskirts of these areas, in transition, and the quarters built in continuation of the perimeter wall present a more regular framework, especially those which open out behind the Spianada in a grid of straight lines running east-west.

The two main streets running east-west and the north-south axis which once connected the Old Citadel to the four gates of the perimeter wall follow an ancient outline. This simple traffic system, dictated by strategic imperatives, contrasts with the secondary alleys (the kantounia, between 1m and 3m wide) which form a complex network of stairs and vaulted tunnels running through a series of small squares, of which Kremasti Square is a typical example.

The restricted space within the perimeter dictated the construction of multi-storey dwellings ranged indiscriminately in serried ranks along the streets. Though the Old Town must have numbered many a patrician dwelling during the Venetian period, only a few of these can be identified in the present day, such as the houses of the Ricchi and Yallina families (17 th century). The house fronts of this period are characterised by regular rows of windows, stone balconies, ground-floor arcades, and a red and ochre rendering that contrasts with the stone door and window jambs. Many feature doorways ornamented with sculptures. Some public buildings from the Venetian period still survive: the door of one of the grain stores (1592), the pawnbroker’s (1630) that forms part of the Commissioners’ Palace, part of the Spilia barracks, and the Grimani barracks to the south of the Spianada.

The trend towards building upwards was accentuated in the 19 th century when the old buildings were raised to anything up to six storeys or, in most cases, replaced by new buildings which often occupied more space than in the past by annexing the courtyards. The wider frontages were divided into three vertical sections, always with many windows, but tended to become more uniform, particularly along sections of the main streets, while remaining sober in their classically inspired ornamentation. Balconies on every floor created a sense of movement and variety in the facades.

Spianada, the esplanade which divides the town from the Old Citadel, takes up one-third of the surface area of the Old Town. Once the most populous of the suburbs in the 16 th century, it attained its present size in the 17 th century for military reasons and is still bordered by 18 th century barracks. In the late 18 th and early 19 th centuries it became an architectural showcase dedicated to leisure activities and civil functions. The French embellished it by constructing arcade-fronted buildings, the Liston, to the west and planting trees. Under the British it became a monumental open space with the Neo-Classical Palace of St Michael and St George (1819-23), once the residence of the Commissioners, to the north and to the south the circular Ionic temple dedicated to Maitland: both are the work of George Whitmore (1775-1862).

At the centre of the Old Town stand two large squares, each leading off one of the two main streets. On Dimarchion Square, once the social and cultural centre of the Venetian town, which lies on the slopes of the hill of Agiou Athanassiou, stand the 18 th century Cathedral of St James, the former residence of the Latin Archbishop (rebuilt in 1754), and the Loggia Nobilei (1663-69), converted into a theatre in 1720 and home of the Town Hall since the early 20 th century.

On Heroon Square stand the churches of St John (pre-16 th century) and Phaneromeni, a basilica with three aisles dating from the early 18 th century and altered in 1832 by Corfiot architect Ioannis Chronis, who designed many public buildings in the Neo-Classical style for the Old Town, including the Ionian Bank which stands on the same square, the home of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the first Greek governor, and the Ionian Parliament (1854, then restored after the bombings in 1943). To the north of this square stands the Church of St Spyridon (1589-94, altered in 1670), which houses the relics of the patron saint of the town and the island. Although the Orthodox faith was upheld during the centuries of foreign occupation, contact with the Latin West also influenced the religious architecture of the Old Town, which shows a strong Byzantine tradition. The example of the single-aisled church, often with a low exterior narthex running around the exterior, is much more common than the three-aisled basilica, although both reflect the repertoires of the Renaissance and the Baroque style. The simplicity of the facades offers a remarkable contrast to the elaborate interior decoration. Many ancient churches were enlarged and renovated in the 18 th century.

History and development

Corfu, the first of the Ionian Islands encountered at the entrance to the Adriatic, was annexed to Greece by a group of Eretrians (775-750 BCE). In 734 BCE the Corinthians founded a colony known as Kerkyra to the south of where the Old Town now stands. The town became a trading post on the way to Sicily and founded further colonies in Illyria and Epirus. The coast of Epirus and Corfu itself came under the sway of the Roman Republic (229 BCE) and served as the jumping-off point for Rome’s expansion into the east. In the reign of Caligula two disciples of the Apostle Paul, St Jason, Bishop of Iconium, and Sosipater, Bishop of Tarsus, introduced Christianity to the island. Corfu fell to the lot of the Eastern Empire at the time of the division in 336 and entered a long period of unsettled fortunes, beginning with the invasion of the Goths (551).

165.The population gradually abandoned the old town and moved to the peninsula surmounted by two peaks (the korifi) where the ancient citadel now stands. The Venetians, who were beginning to play a more decisive role in the southern Adriatic, came to the aid of a failing Byzantium, thereby conveniently defending their own trade with Constantinople against the Norman prince Robert Guiscard. Corfu was taken by the Normans in 1081 and returned to the Byzantine Empire in 1084.

Following the Fourth Crusade and the sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204, the Byzantine Empire was broken up and, in return for their military support, the Venetians obtained all the naval bases they needed to control the Aegean and the Ionian Seas, including Corfu, which they occupied briefly from 1204 to 1214. For the next half-century, the island fell under the sway of the Despots of Epirus (1214-67) and then that of the Angevins of Naples (1267-1368), who used it to further their policies against both the Byzantine Empire now re-established in Constantinople and the Republic of Venice.

The tiny medieval town grew up between the two fortified peaks, the Byzantine Castel da Mare and the Angevin Castel di Terra, in the shelter of a defensive wall fortified with towers. Writings from the first half of the 13 th century tell of a separation of administrative and religious powers between the inhabitants of the citadel and those of the outlying parts of the town occupying what is now the Spianada.

In order to assert its naval and commercial power in the Southern Adriatic, the Republic of Venice took advantage of the internal conflicts raging in the Kingdom of Naples to take control of Corfu (1386-1797). Alongside Negropont (Chalcis), Crete, and Modon (Methoni), it would form one of the bases from which to counter the Ottoman maritime offensive and serve as a revictualling station for ships en route to Romania and the Black Sea.

The ongoing work on defining, improving, and expanding the medieval fortified perimeter reflects the economic and strategic role of Corfu during the four centuries of Venetian occupation. In the early 15 th century activity concentrated on the medieval town, with the development of harbour facilities (docks, quays and arsenals) and continued with the renovation of the defence works. Earlyin the following century a canal was dug, cutting off the medieval town from its suburbs. Following the siege of the town by the Turks in 1537 and the burning of the suburbs, a new programme of works was launched to isolate the citadel further and strengthen its defences. The strip of land (now the Spianada) cleared in 1516 was widened by demolishing houses facing the citadel walls, two new bastions were raised on the banks of the canal, the elevation of the perimeter walls was lowered, and the two castelli were replaced by new structures. The work, based on plans drawn by Veronese architect Michele Sanmicheli (1487-1559), were completed in 1558, bringing the town’s defences up to date with the rapid progress made in artillery in recent decades.

Yet another siege by the Turks in 1571 decided theVenetians to embark on a vast project covering themedieval town, its suburbs, the harbour, and all themilitary buildings (1576-88). Ferrante Vitelli, architect to the Duke of Savoy, sited a fort (the New Fort) on the low hill of St Mark to the west of the old town to command the surrounding land and at sea, and also the 24 suburbs enclosed by a ditched wall with bastions and four gates.

More buildings, both military and civil, were erected and the 15th century Mandraki harbour was restructured and enlarged. At the same time, the medieval town was converted to more specifically military uses (the cathedral was transferred to the new town in the 17 th century) to become the Old Citadel.

Between 1669 and 1682 the system of defences was further strengthened to the west by a second wall, the work of military engineer Filippo Vernada. In 1714 the Turks sought to reconquer Morea (the Peloponnese) but Venetian resistance hardened when the Turkish forces headed towards Corfu. The support of Christian naval fleets and an Austrian victory in Hungary in 1716 helped to save the town. The commander of the Venetian forces on Corfu, Giovanni Maria von Schulenburg, was inspired by the designs of Filippo Vernada to put the final touches to this great fortified ensemble. The outer western defences were reinforced by a complex system of outworks on the heights of two mountains, Abraham and Salvatore, and on the intermediate fort of San Rocco (1717-30).

The treaty of Campo Formio (1797) marked the end of the Republic of Venice and saw Corfu come under French control (1797-99) until France withdrew before the Russian-Turkish alliance that founded the State of the Ionian Islands, of which Corfu would become the capital (1799-1807). The redrawing of territorial boundaries in Europe after the fall of Napoleon made Corfu, after a brief interlude of renewed French control (1807-14), a British protectorate for the next half-century (1814-64).

As the capital of the United States of the Ionian Islands, Corfu lost its strategic importance. Under the governance of the British High Commissioner Sir Thomas Maitland (1816-24), development activity concentrated on the Spianada; his successor, Sir Frederic Adam (1824-32), turned his attention towards public works (building an aqueduct, restructuring the Old Citadel and adding new military buildings at the expense of the Venetian buildings, reconstruction and raising of the town’s dwellings) and the reorganisation of the educational system (the new Ionian Academy was opened in 1824), contributing to the upsurge in intellectual interests sparked during the French occupation. At the same time, the British began demolishing the outer fortifications on the western edge of the town and planning residential areas outside the defensive walls.

In 1864 the island was attached to the Kingdom of the Hellenes. The fortresses were disarmed and several sections of the perimeter wall and the defences weregradually demolished. The island became a favoured holiday destination for the aristocracy of Europe. The Old Town was badly damaged by bombing in 1943. Added to the loss of life was the destruction of many houses and public buildings (the Ionian Parliament, the theatre, and the library), fourteen churches, and a number of buildings in the Old Citadel. In recent decades the gradual growth of the new town has accelerated with the expansion of tourism.

OUTSTANDING UNIVERSAL VALUE, INTEGRITY AND AUTHENTICITY

Integrity and Authenticity

Integrity

The Old Town of Corfu is a fortified Mediterranean harbour retaining traces of Venetian occupation, including the Old Citadel and the New Fort, but primarily of the British period.

The strict legal measures enacted after World War II, and the listing of the town for protection as a cultural monument in 1967 have provided the basis for the control of changes and the possibility to retain the integrity of the town. During the British period, three forts were preserved: the Old Fortress, the New Fortress and the small island of Vidos. The plan provided for the demolition of all the western forts. The British did demolish the south-west side in 1937 and fort of Sotiros in 1938 to give space for prisons. In the old and new fortresses, the British intervention related to internal restructuring and some new additions.

The overall form of the fortifications has been retained. Nevertheless, like most fortifications, Corfu has faced many severe military attacks, causing destruction, demolition and rebuilding. The interventions of the 19 th century and the rebuilding after the World War II have in fact reduced the historic fabric of the property. Only a relatively small part of the structures actually dates from the Venetian period.

Authenticity

Corfu developed from a small Byzantine town along the lines of a western urban model, which can be seen on all cultural levels and displayed in the town’s structure and form. The Old Town of Corfu today occupies the same area as the ancient town whose overall design it still reflects, with the two fortifications, the open space of the Spianada, the compact urban core with its different quarters and the streets. This urban fabric has been shaped by centuries of demolition and reconstruction dictated by military needs. In the 19 th century the British were the first to begin dismantling the complex Venetian defence system, the scale of which is amply illustrated by the many maps still extant. The British example was followed by the Greek government after 1864.

About 70% of the pre-20 th century buildings date from the British period. There were no large openings made in Corfu as was the case in many other fortifications. Some of the dwellings have undergone further modifications in the 20 th century, such as the addition of an extra floor.

World War II bombing destroyed some houses and buildings in the Old Town, particularly in the western section, where whole blocks were destroyed. The buildings thus lost were in part replaced by new constructions in the 1960s and 1970s.

These interventions represent a particular juncture in history and express the aesthetic attitudes of their time, clearly distinguished from previous buildings. The existence of rich records on the old form of the town has ensured full documentation in the case of interventions to existing buildings. The fortifications of Corfu and the historic urban areas have been subject to various armed conflicts and consequent destruction. The present form of the ensemble results from the works in the 19 th and 20 th centuries, even though based on the overall design of previous phases, particularly in the Venetian period. ICOMOS considers that the fortified ensemble of Corfu is authentic, despite the many structural alterations resulting from its major strategic importance as a military position. It has been actively involved in many conflicts which took place at the point of contact between the West and the Mediterranean East from the 15 th to the 20 th centuries. It has been rebuilt several times, and altered to allow for developments in weapons of attack and principles of defence, successively by the Venetians and by the British. The integrity of the fortified ensemble, in its current state of conservation, is satisfactory in terms of expressing its outstanding value. ICOMOS considers that the urban site of Corfu is representative of an urban history which is closely associated with the structure of forts and ramparts. ICOMOS considers however that the authenticity and integrity of the urban fabric are primarily those of a neo-classical town.

In conclusion, ICOMOS considers that the authenticity and integrity of the fortified ensemble of Corfu enable the expression of its outstanding value.

Comparative analysis

The comparative analysis in the 2006 nomination document refers to the following Mediterranean fortified cities: Rhodes, Valletta, Dubrovnik, Trogir, and Heraklion.

In the supplementary information provided by the State Party, the comparison has been extended to several other port towns in Italy, the Near East and the Dalmatian coast.

Corfu is distinguished partly due to archaeological evidence of history from the 8 th century BC and from the Byzantine period.

It is argued by the State Party that Corfu is characterised due to its European influences and for its identity resulting from its role as a crossroads of civilisations. The fortifications of the Venetian period, designed by architects Sanmicheli, gave Corfu a major role as one of the strategic military bases of Venice at the entrance to the Adriatic Sea. It is also one of the few areas that avoided Ottoman occupation keeping its western character.

There are a number of important fortifications in the eastern Mediterranean region. Of these, Valletta and Dubrovnik are certainly the most impressive. The maritime republic of Venice established its reign through a series of fortifications along the Dalmatian coast, and Corfu was one of these. The Ottoman Empire ruled in the inland of the Balkans and in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, including the old town of Rhodes and the town of Heraklion on the island of Crete. From the mid 14 th century Dubrovnik became an autonomous republic and a rival to Venice. Valletta instead was ruled by the Knights of Malta and remained the most important fortified port in this part of the Mediterranean until the 20 th century.

ICOMOS considers that Corfu certainly had an important strategic position at the entrance to the Adriatic Sea. For this reason it also had to face the many attacks by the Ottomans. Historically, the property has its origins in antiquity, but architecturally the fortification represents a typical Renaissance fort, which was rebuilt several times.

The housing stock is in neo-classical style, but without special architectural features for which it could be distinguished.

ICOMOS considers that the comparative study that accompanies the new dossier is satisfactory, and that it enables a suitable assessment of the value of the property.

Justification of the Outstanding Universal Value

The State Party considers that Corfu has an Outstanding Universal Value for the following:

The Old Town of Corfu, internationally renowned, is a unique cultural entity of a high aesthetic value: the aesthetic value is recognised in the structure and form of the once-walled town, as well as in its arts, letters and social life. The Old Town developed diachronically, through the osmosis of features of the two worlds of the Mediterranean, the East and the West. It has been preserved, alive and substantially unaltered, until the present day.

The defence system and the urban fabric were designed and developed during the Venetian period, from the 15 th to the 18 th centuries, and then by the British Empire during the 19 th century.

The importance of Corfu’s fortifications for the history of defensive architecture is huge. From both the technical and aesthetic point of view they constitute one of the most glorious examples preserved, not only in Greece, but across the Eastern Mediterranean more widely. At various occasions, Corfu had to defend the Venetian maritime empire against the Ottoman army.

Neo-classical in its architecture, the old town bears witness to the duration of European architectural and cultural influence in the Balkans, which were mainly dominated by the Ottoman empire. Corfu is also important for studying the development of urban multi-storey buildings, since it is the first Greek city in which the idea of horizontal ownership appeared. The composite character of the town that resulted from its history and the ability to assimilate differences without conflict led to the development of a particular cosmopolitan atmosphere with intense European symbolism.

http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/978

The Francs created Liston, reminiscent of Rue Rivoli in Paris	The Palace of Michail and Georgiou, house of the English Commissioner, bearing neoclassical elements.

In the Gulf of Gouvia, 9 kilometres north of the city of Corfu, the Venetians had built their dockyards (in red circle).	The dockyards as they are today.

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